Pindar's original and strongly individual genius is apparent in all his extant compositions but, unlike Simonides and Stesichorus for example, he created no new lyrical genres. He was however innovative in his employment of the genres he inherited — for example, in one of his victory odes (
Olympian 3), he announces his invention of a new type of musical accompaniment, combining lyre, flute and human voice (though our knowledge of Greek music is too sketchy to allow us to understand the full nature of this innovation). He probably spoke Boeotian Greek but he composed in a literary language fairly typical of archaic Greek poetry, relying on Doric dialect more consistently than his rival Bacchylides, for example, but less insistently than Alcman. There is an admixture of other dialects, especially Aeolic and epic forms, and there is an occasional use of some Boeotian words. He composed choral songs of several types which, according to a Late Antique biographer, were subsequently grouped into seventeen books by scholars at the Library of Alexandria. They were, by genre:
- 1 book of humnoi — "hymns"
- 1 book of paianes — "paeans"
- 2 books of dithuramboi — "dithyrhambs"
- 2 books of prosodia — "processionals"
- 3 books of parthenia — "songs for maidens"
- 2 books of huporchemata — "songs for light dances"
- 1 book of enkomia — "songs of praise"
- 1 book of threnoi — "laments"
- 4 books of epinikia — "victory odes"
Of this vast and varied corpus, only the
epinikia ... odes written to commemorate athletic victories ... survive in complete form; the rest survive only by quotations in other ancient authors or from papyrus scraps unearthed in Egypt. Even in fragmentary form, however, the various genres reveal the same complexity of thought and language that are found in the victory odes.
Victory odes
Almost all Pindar's victory odes are celebrations of triumphs gained by competitors in Panhellenic festivals such as the Olympian Games. The establishment of these athletic and musical festivals was among the greatest achievements of the Greek aristocracies. Even in the 5th century, when there was an increased tendency towards professionalism, they were predominantly aristocratic assemblies, reflecting the expense and the leisure needed to attend such events either as a competitor or spectator. Attendance was an opportunity for display and self-promotion, and the prestige of victory, requiring commitment in time and/or wealth, went far beyond anything that accrues to athletic victories today, even in spite of the modern preoccupation with sport. Pindar's odes capture something of the prestige and the aristocratic grandeur of the moment of victory, as in this stanza from one of his Isthmian Odes, here translated by Geoffrey S. Conway:
- ::::If ever a man strives
- ::With all his soul's endeavour, sparing himself
- ::Neither expense nor labour to attain
- ::True excellence, then must we give to those
- ::Who have achieved the goal, a proud tribute
- ::::Of lordly praise, and shun
- :::All thoughts of envious jealousy.
- ::To a poet's mind the gift is slight, to speak
- ::A kind word for unnumbered toils, and build
- ::For all to share a monument of beauty. (Isthmian I, antistrophe 3)
His victory odes are grouped into four books named after the Olympian, Pythian, Isthmian, and Nemean Games — Panhellenic festivals held respectively at Olympia, Delphi, Corinth and Nemea. This reflects the fact that most of the odes were composed in honour of boys, youths and men who had recently enjoyed victories in athletic (and sometimes musical) contests at those festivals. In a few odes, however, much older victories and even victories in lesser games are sometimes celebrated, often being used as a pretext for addressing other issues or achievements. For example,
Pythian 3, composed in honour of Hieron of Syracuse, briefly mentions an old victory he had once enjoyed at the Pythian Games, but it is actually intended to console him for his chronic illness.
Nemean 9 and
Nemean 10 celebrate victories in games at Sicyon and Argos, and
Nemean 11 celebrates a victory in a municipal election on Tenedos (though it includes mention of some obscure athletic victories). These three odes are the final odes in the
Nemean book of odes and there is a reason for their inclusion there. In the original manuscripts, the four books of odes were arranged in the order of importance assigned to the festivals, with the Nemean festival, considered least important, coming last. Any victory odes that lacked the aura of a Panhellenic subject were then bundled together at the end of the book of
Nemean odes.
Style
As mentioned in the introduction, Pindar's poetic style is unique and highly individualised even when the peculiarities of the genre are set aside. The odes typically feature a grand and arresting opening, often with architectural metaphor or a resounding invocation to a place or goddess. He makes rich use of decorative language and florid compound adjectives. Sentences are compressed to the point of obscurity, unusual words and periphrases give the language an esoteric quality, transitions in meaning often seem erratic, and images seem to burst out — it's a style that baffles reason and which makes his poetry vivid and unforgettable.
Such qualities can be found, for example, in this stanza from
Pythian 2, composed in honour of Hieron:
- ::God achieves all his purpose and fulfills
- ::His every hope, god who can overtake
- ::The winged eagle, or upon the sea
- :::Outstrip the dolphin; and he bends
- ::::The arrogant heart
- :::Of many a man, but gives to others
- ::Eternal glory that will never fade.
- ::Now for me is it needful that I shun
- ::::The fierce and biting tooth
- ::Of slanderous words. For from old have I seen
- ::Sharp-tongued Archilochus in want and struggling,
- ::::Grown fat on the harsh words
- :::Of hate. The best that fate can bring
- ::Is wealth joined with the happy gift of wisdom.
The stanza begins with a universalizing movement, taking in the sky, sea, god and the human struggle for justice, then abruptly shifts to a darker, more allusive train of thought, featuring a highly individual, even eccentric condemnation of a renowned poet, Archilochus with curious phrasing such as
Grown fat on the harsh words of hate. Archilochus took a sardonic and often humorous view of his own and other people's faults — a regrettable tendency from the viewpoint of Pindar, whose own persona is intensely earnest, preaching to high achievers like Hieron the need for moderation (wealth with wisdom) and submission to the divine will. The reference to the embittered poet appears to be Pindar's meditative response to some intrigues at Hieron's court, possibly by his personal rivals, condemned elsewhere as
a pair of ravens (
Olympian 2). The intensity of the stanza suggests that it is the culmination and climax of the poem. In fact, the stanza occupies the middle of
Pythian 2 and the intensity is sustained throughout the poem from beginning to end. It is the sustained intensity of his poetry that Quintilian refers to above as a
rolling flood of eloquence and Horace below refers to as the
uncontrollable momentum of a river that has burst its banks. Longinus likens him to
a vast fire and Athenaeus refers to him as
the great-voiced Pindar.
Pindar's treatment of myth is another unique aspect of his style, often involving variations on the traditional stories. Myths enabled him to develop the kind of themes and lessons that pre-occupied him — in particular mankind's exulted relation with the gods via heroic ancestors and, in contrast, the limitations and uncertainties of human existence — but sometimes the traditional stories were an embarrassment and they needed to be carefully edited, as for example:"Be still my tongue: here profits not / to tell the whole truth with clear face unveiled," (
Nemean 5, epode 1); "Away, away this story! / Let no such tale fall from my lips! / For to insult the gods is a fool's wisdom," (
Olympian 9, strophe 2); "Senseless, I hold it, for a man to say / the gods eat mortal flesh. / I spurn the thought," (
Olympian 1, epode 2). His mythical accounts are also edited for dramatic and graphic effects, usually unfolding through a few grand gestures against a background of large, often symbolic elements such as sea, sky, darkness, fire or mountain.
Structure
Pindar's odes typically begin with an invocation to a god or the Muses, followed by praise of the victor and often of his family, ancestors and home-town. Then follows a narrated myth, usually occupying the central and longest section of the poem, exemplify a moral while also aligning the world of the poet and his audience with the world of gods and heroes. The ode usually ends in more eulogies, as for example of trainers (if the victor is a boy), and of relatives who have won past events, as well as with prayers or expressions of hope for future success. The event where the victory was gained is never described in detail but there is often some brief mention of the hard work needed to bring the victory about.
A lot of modern criticism is concerned with finding hidden structure or some unifying principle within the odes. 19th century criticism favoured 'gnomic unity' i.e. each ode is bound together by the kind of moralizing or philosophic vision typical of archaic Gnomic poetry. Later critics sought for unity in the way certain words or images are repeated and developed within any particular ode. For others, the odes really are just celebrations of men and their communities, in which the elements such as myths, piety and ethics are stock themes that the poet introduces without much real thought. Some have concluded that the requirement for unity is too modern to have informed Pindar's ancient approach to a traditional craft.
The great majority of the odes are triadic in structure — i.e. stanzas are grouped together in threes as a lyrical unit. Each triad comprises two stanzas identical in length and meter (called 'strophe' and 'antistrophe') and a third stanza (called an 'epode'), differing in length and meter but rounding off the lyrical movement in some way. The shortest odes comprise a single triad, the largest (
Pythian 4) comprises thirteen triads. Seven of the odes however are monostrophic (i.e. each stanza in the ode is identical in length and meter). The monostrophic odes seem to have been composed for victory marches or processions, whereas the triadic odes appear suited to choral dances. Pindar's metrical rhythms are nothing like the simple, repetitive rhythms familiar to readers of English verse — typically the rhythm of any given line recurs infrequently (for example, only once every ten, fifteen or twenty lines). This adds to the aura of complexity that surrounds Pindar's work. In terms of meter, the odes fall roughly into two categories — about half are in dactylo-epitrites (a meter found for example in the works of Stesichorus, Simonides and Bacchylides) and the other half are in Aeolic metres based on iambs and choriambs.
Chronological order
Modern editors (e.g. Snell and Maehler in their Teubner edition), have assigned dates, securely or tentatively, to Pindar's victory odes, based on ancient sources and other grounds. The date of an athletic victory is not always the date of composition but often serves merely as a
terminus post quem. Many dates are based on comments by ancient sources who had access to published lists of victors, such as the Olympic list compiled by Hippias of Elis, and lists of Pythian victors made by Aristotle and Callisthenes. There were however no such lists for the Isthmian and Nemean Games — Pausanias (6.13.8) complained that the Corinthians and Argives never kept proper records. The resulting uncertainty is reflected in the chronology below, with question marks clustered around Nemean and Isthmian entries, and yet it still represents a fairly clear general timeline of Pindar's career as an epinician poet. The code
M denotes monostrophic odes (odes in which all stanzas are metrically identical) and the rest are triadic (i.e. featuring strophes, antistrophes, epodes):
Horace's tribute
The great Latin poet, Quintus Horatius Flaccus, was an eloquent admirer of Pindar's style. He described it in these terms in one of his Sapphic poems, addressed to a friend, Julus Antonius:
- :::Pindarum quisquis studet aemulari,
- :::Iule, ceratis ope Daedalea
- :::nititur pennis vitreo daturus
- ::::nomina ponto.
- :::monte decurrens velut amnis, imbres
- :::quem super notas aluere ripas,
- :::fervet immensusque ruit profundo
- ::::Pindarus ore... (C.IV.II)
Translated by James Michie:
- :::Julus, whoever tries to rival Pindar,
- :::Flutters on wings of wax, a rude contriver
- :::Doomed like the son of Daedalus to christen
- ::::Somewhere a shining sea.
- :::A river bursts its banks and rushes down a
- :::Mountain with uncontrollable momentum,
- :::Rain-saturated, churning, chanting thunder —
- ::::There you have Pindar's style...